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生物医药的专利江湖:前专利时代与后专利时代的制药业

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(Summary description)如果制药行业不受专利保护会怎么样?专利制度的出现,又给制药行业的商业运行规则带来了怎样的改变?  制药行业的“前专利”时代  如果我们想研究专利制度对商业世界的影响,一个理想的实验是:找到一个没有专利制度的商业社会,对其进行克隆,并在克隆后的商业社会中加入专利制度而保持其它条件不变。然后,我们从旁观察这两个平行社会各自的发展轨迹,并通过对比得出结论。然而,现实世界中,这样的实验并没有可行性。那么,

生物医药的专利江湖:前专利时代与后专利时代的制药业

(Summary description)如果制药行业不受专利保护会怎么样?专利制度的出现,又给制药行业的商业运行规则带来了怎样的改变?  制药行业的“前专利”时代  如果我们想研究专利制度对商业世界的影响,一个理想的实验是:找到一个没有专利制度的商业社会,对其进行克隆,并在克隆后的商业社会中加入专利制度而保持其它条件不变。然后,我们从旁观察这两个平行社会各自的发展轨迹,并通过对比得出结论。然而,现实世界中,这样的实验并没有可行性。那么,

  • Categories:最新消息
  • Author:
  • Origin:
  • Time of issue:2017-04-26 14:35
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Information

  如果制药行业不受专利保护会怎么样?专利制度的出现,又给制药行业的商业运行规则带来了怎样的改变?

  制药行业的“前专利”时代

  如果我们想研究专利制度对商业世界的影响,一个理想的实验是:找到一个没有专利制度的商业社会,对其进行克隆,并在克隆后的商业社会中加入专利制度而保持其它条件不变。然后,我们从旁观察这两个平行社会各自的发展轨迹,并通过对比得出结论。然而,现实世界中,这样的实验并没有可行性。那么,我们能不能回到过去,通过对比在专利制度带来影响之前和之后制药行业的发展情况而有些许感悟呢?

  让我们回到20世纪初的美国,那时候的制药技术基本上数十年如一日鲜有变化;那时候的药厂不需要医药代表也不需要向医生进行推销,因为除了麻醉剂之外,所有的药物都可以无需处方就轻松买到。换句话说,那时候的制药行业跟其它制造业并没有明显区别。

  然而,这一切随着1938年颁布的FDA法案发生了变化。

  1938法案中非常重要的一个部分是要求任何新药必须经FDA批准注册才能上市销售,这使得FDA能够防止存在安全隐患的药物出现在市场上。1938法案的出现也第一次使得“处方药”与“非处方药”变得“泾渭分明”起来。此前,虽然也有通过医生开处方进行销售的情况,但是除了麻醉品之外的药物都可以无需处方而在药店直接购买。换言之,1938法案出台之前,非处方药与处方药之间没有明确的界限。然而,1938法案彻底改变了处方药的销售方式,制药厂商面对的客户从“患者”变成了“医院/医生”,这些新“客户”的特别之处不仅在于他们具有更多的专业知识,还在于他们并不为自己决定购买的产品买单。很多时候,医生甚至不了解药品的确切价格。也就是说,掏钱的人没有决策权,而做出决策的人并不需要掏钱。正因为如此,与1938年之前的情形相比,药品的销量对价格的变化没那么敏感了。

  新游戏规则的形成

  虽然1938法案将制药行业由普通制造业变成了需要政府批准才能生产销售的“特殊制造业”,但是药品生产的准入门槛还是相对较低,与这种较低的准入门槛相对应的,就是激烈的市场竞争和价格战。以抗生素类药物为例,1944年,有19家不同的美国药企生产青霉素,而最大的5家企业占领了88%的市场份额。到了1950年,排名前5的青霉素生产厂家的市场份额下降到了43%,青霉素的价格也在5年间一落千丈,由1945年的近4000美元/磅暴跌到1950年的不到300美元/磅。

  但是,后续的一系列变化潜移默化地改变了制药行业的游戏规则。

  首先,是技术方面的进步。Selman Waksman发明了从土壤中筛选抗生素的方法,并且在1943年成功地用这种方法筛选得到了链霉素,后来,Waksman因为这一发现获得了1952年的诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

  其次,随着技术的进步,专利开始在制药行业中扮演起日渐重要的角色。如上文提到的,此前的制药行业并不是研发活跃的领域,而青霉素等药物因为是“自然界本就存在的物质”而并不属于专利保护的“发明”范畴。但是,伴随着技术的发展,人们发现能够通过专利来保护新开发的药物,Merck改进了链霉素的生产工艺和纯度,并于1948年获得了第一个关于链霉素的“物质组合物”专利(第2,446,102号美国专利)。虽然Merck获得了关于链霉素的专利权,但是由于害怕舆论指责自己利用对公共健康有重大影响的发现谋一己之私利,Merck不加歧视地将权利许可给了许多生产和制造商,这使得链霉素又走上了青霉素的老路---仿制药层出不穷,市场竞争日渐激烈,价格很快一落千丈。

  在这之后,新药研发企业开始不再向其它厂家发放一视同仁的专利许可,相反,他们开始利用专利赋予的“法律独占权”构筑竞争壁垒、获取竞争优势。由于这些新药研发企业成为了市场上唯一能够提供某个药物产品的企业,他们开始掌控供需关系。为了实现利益最大化,一种做法是减少产量,通过使产品供不应求而保持比较高的价格;另一种做法是自己不直接销售,转而通过高昂的专利许可费获利。当采取第二种方案时,付出了高昂许可费的被许可方就必须通过提高药品价格来收回成本并获利。于是,1938法案出台后,对价格变化较不敏感的“处方药”就成了香饽饽。如果一种对价格变化不敏感的处方药满足了此前未得到满足的市场需求,又通过专利保护获得了法律给予的“垄断权”,则通过实际控制供需关系(垄断药品来源并抬高药品价格)或者通过收取高额专利许可费,新药研发企业就能实现利润最大化。由于许可费通常取决于最终产品的销售情况,变数较大,而后续核查被许可人实际销售的数量等又需要花费太多精力,很多新药研发企业都不约而同地选择了自产自销这条路。

  这种变化在后来的四环素类药物中清楚地得到了展现。1948年Lederle推出了金霉素,1949年Parke-Davis推出了氯霉素,而1950年Pfizer推出了土霉素。当时,人们并不知道这三种药物活性成分的化学结构,也不清楚它们的副作用,只知道它们的抗菌效果相仿且都优于青霉素。这三家公司各自有专利保护自己的产品,并且因此确保了其它厂家无法生产相同的产品。然而,因为这三种药的疗效相仿,他们为“消费者”带来的是相似的“益处”,因此这三家公司彼此之间仍存在竞争关系。他们需要在“疗效”之外的领域寻觅并展现各自的“闪光点”,于是有针对性的广告以及品牌宣传等策略就派上了用场。然而,由于这个时期的主要“创新”活动还是基于Waksman的筛选法,所以各个药厂发现的“新药”从功效方面来讲还是大同小异。虽然每个厂家通过“专利”保护了各自的具体产品,使得生产“同一产品”的竞争压力在专利有效期内得到缓解,但是“类似产品”之间的竞争还是相当激烈,因为这些虽不完全相同但功效类似的药物针对的是同样的消费者人群。

  Pfizer最早意识到,要在这样的竞争格局中脱颖而出,就需要在“创新手段”方面掌握“独门绝技”。于是,Pfizer聘请了哈佛大学的有机化学家Robert Woodward来研究土霉素的化学结构。通过Woodward的研究,Pfizer不仅了解了土霉素的化学结构,还在Lederle的药物金霉素的基础上进行了改进,通过去除金霉素上的一个氯原子得到了四环素。Robert Woodward因为在合成化学方面的杰出工作获得了1965年的诺贝尔化学奖。

  Lederle听闻了Pfizer采取的行动,于是也快马加鞭地开展了四环素的合成工作,使用的就是Pfizer的方法,并申请了自己的专利。随着Pfizer和Lederle相关研究成果的公开,其它的制药厂商也开始尝试用不同的方法生产四环素,其中,Hayden Chemical Corporation及Bristol成功地用各自的方法生产得到了四环素,并分别申请了专利保护他们各自的方法。

  然后,这些公司之间就谁发明了什么、谁应该获得什么权利展开了混战。伴随着一系列法律行动的还有一系列非法律途径的协商、沟通及许可,专利诉讼只是这盘棋中的一颗棋子而已。最终,Pfizer基于其产品专利权授予了五家公司专利许可,允许他们合法地生产四环素,并相应地获得了专利许可费。拥有核心专利的Pfizer终于获得了绝对的市场优势。这五家公司之间达成的合作及协议使得四环素的价格在相当长的时间内保持稳定,而没有重蹈青霉素及链霉素的覆辙,避免了价格战的发生。值得注意的是,四环素的生产成本仅仅为其售价的不到10%,因为获得了专利保护,使得药物的利润空间大大提高。如果我们比较同时期、同一个厂家的不同药物之间的利润差异,就会有更有趣的发现。以Lederle为例,其1955年销售的所有药物的总利润率是20%,其中抗生素类药物带来的利润率为35%,而其它所有药物的利润率只有区区3%。考虑到在Lederle当时销售的众多抗生素类药物中,青霉素和磺胺类药物基本上是赔钱的,这35%的利润基本上完全来自受专利保护的产品四环素。

  在长期的专利混战中,最后强强联手的五家公司占领了广谱抗生素的市场,那些没有专利且没有获得专利许可的厂家被无情地排除在了“四环素俱乐部”之外。然而,在保证利润率的情况下,这块大蛋糕在这五家制药厂商之间又该如何分配呢?由于1938法案的颁布,手握“处方权”的医生而非最终买单的消费者成为了决定药物销量的关键因素。因此,药厂们不再将宝贵的财富漫无目的地投放到报纸、杂志或广告牌上,他们开始“精准地”接触有决定权的医生。至此,制药行业新的游戏规则初现雏形:通过技术创新获得专利权---通过掌握一项或多项专利权拿到进入玩家俱乐部的入场券---而后各俱乐部成员间通过各显神通的广告本领争夺市场份额。

  专利保护使得药品的高额利润成为可能,而高额利润带来了快速发展。以Bristol为例,在加入“四环素俱乐部”之前,Bristol只是名不见经传的原料生产厂商,而到了20世纪50年代末期,Bristol成为了集研发、生产、销售为一体的大型制药公司。可以说,正是因为专利制度给药品带来的“法定垄断”性地位,成功跟上这一浪潮的企业从单纯的原料生产厂家或药品包装、销售厂商逐步成长为了我们今天看到的高度垂直整合的庞然大物。重要的是,我们看到,类似的故事在抗生素大战后不断重复上演,一直到21世纪的今天。

  http://www.y-lp.com/pages/Article.aspx?id=4723218449505193327

Electronic

Electronic Arts pledges free use for five accessibility patents

Electronic Arts pledges free use for five accessibility patents Recently, Electronic Arts (EA) announced a patent pledge that gives other companies and developers free access to five of its current accessibility-related patents and technology. The company promised not to enforce against any party for infringing any of the listed patents. Instead, EA hopes to encourage “innovation” and build new features that make video games more inclusive on a much larger scale by opening up the patents.  Electronic Arts (EA) is an American video game company founded in 1982. The company owns many popular and famous games, such as The Sims, SimCity, Apex Legends, Madden NFL and FIFA. Each of the games has more than 30 or 50 million sales volume. Significantly, esports involves FIFA and Apex Legends into the event list. Apex Legends has up to 1 billion players, and it is so popular that it has a Switch version. Within the freely available patents, one of which grabs everyone’s attention -- Apex Legends’ ping system (patent No. US 11097189). The ping system in Apex Legends, which excellently allows players to make communication and teamwork quick and easy without hearing or speaking, has been praised both as an impressive alternative to voice chat and as a great accessibility feature for players with a variety of disabilities.  The other patents include the technology widely used in the FIFA and Madden NFL. The innovations can automatically detect and modify colors (patent No. US 10118097 and CN 107694092) and contrast ratios (patent No. US 10878540) to improve gamers’ visibility with colorblindness and low vision. Furthermore, one of the patents relates to personalized sound technology, helping players with hearing issues by modifying or creating music based on their preferences (patent No. US 10790919).   The code of the mentioned technology is published on EA’s GitHub, and it is open to all developers. Thus, the developers can use it or adapt it for their games without spending the costs to research. It is good that EA shares the patents for free use and aims to create an accessibility-increased gaming environment for players. However, it is not “unconditional” to use the listed patents. In the pledge, EA mentioned that it may terminate the promise for a specific party which files a patent infringement lawsuit or other patent proceedings against EA. We can see parts of EV’s ambition behind the announcement—to build a large game developer league and a community of shared interests.     Reference: https://www.ea.com/commitments/positive-play/accessibility-patent-pledge https://iknow.stpi.narl.org.tw/Post/Read.aspx?PostID=14562 https://www.polygon.com/22639469/apex-legends-electronic-arts-patent-pledge-accessibility-developers https://www.theverge.com/2021/8/24/22638535/ea-accessibility-patent-pledge-apex-legends-ping-system https://www.gamesradar.com/ea-secures-a-patent-for-the-apex-legends-ping-system-and-its-giving-it-away-for-free/ https://dotesports.com/apex-legends/news/apex-legends-ping-system-is-now-patent-free-for-accessibility https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2021/08/apex_legends_ping_system_now_patent-free_as_ea_announces_accessibility_pledge Recently, Electronic Arts (EA) announced a patent pledge that gives other companies and developers free access to five of its current accessibility-related patents and technology. The company promised not to enforce against any party for infringing any of the listed patents. Instead, EA hopes to encourage “innovation” and build new features that make video games more inclusive on a much larger scale by opening up the patents.    Electronic Arts (EA) is an American video game company founded in 1982. The company owns many popular and famous games, such as The Sims, SimCity, Apex Legends, Madden NFL and FIFA. Each of the games has more than 30 or 50 million sales volume. Significantly, esports involves FIFA and Apex Legends into the event list. Apex Legends has up to 1 billion players, and it is so popular that it has a Switch version.   Within the freely available patents, one of which grabs everyone’s attention -- Apex Legends’ ping system (patent No. US 11097189). The ping system in Apex Legends, which excellently allows players to make communication and teamwork quick and easy without hearing or speaking, has been praised both as an impressive alternative to voice chat and as a great accessibility feature for players with a variety of disabilities.    The other patents include the technology widely used in the FIFA and Madden NFL. The innovations can automatically detect and modify colors (patent No. US 10118097 and CN 107694092) and contrast ratios (patent No. US 10878540) to improve gamers’ visibility with colorblindness and low vision. Furthermore, one of the patents relates to personalized sound technology, helping players with hearing issues by modifying or creating music based on their preferences (patent No. US 10790919).   The
2021-10-22
The

The forum on "China's Intellectual Property-related Reform Measures and New Trends in Patent Litigation" will be held successfully!

The forum on "China's Intellectual Property-related Reform Measures and New Trends in Patent Litigation" will be held successfully! In response to the call for building a strong country with intellectual property rights, at 2 o'clock in the afternoon of October 21, the forum on "China's reform measures related to intellectual property rights and new trends in patent litigation" will be successfully held in Nanjing Jiangbei New District Industrial Technology Research and Innovation Park. The event was hosted by the Science and Technology Innovation Bureau of Nanjing Jiangbei New Area Management Committee, Nanjing Jiangbei New Area Industrial Technology Research and Innovation Park, Nanjing Intellectual Property Rights Protection Assistance Center Jiangbei New District Center, Nanjing Huaxun Intellectual Property Consultant Co., Ltd., Nanjing Intellectual Property Co-organized by the Protection Center (Nanjing Intellectual Property Rights Protection Assistance Center), Taiwan Pharmaceutical Development Association, and Gene Online. The director of Nanjing Intellectual Property Protection Center, Mou Xiaojian, delivered a speech. Director Mu expressed his warm congratulations on the holding of this event and introduced in detail the new pattern of intellectual property protection in Nanjing. He said: At present, Nanjing has implemented a rights protection assistance network in the municipal area. With full coverage, Nanjing Intellectual Property Protection Center is willing to closely communicate and interact with Nanjing's innovation entities, and provide relevant public welfare services such as rapid pre-review, rapid rights protection, and comprehensive utilization for enterprises in need. In addition, Huang Funan, CEO of Gene Online, was unable to come to congratulate due to the epidemic, and recorded a congratulatory video. In the video, he said: China Innovative Pharmaceuticals has already made many outstanding achievements on the international stage, and these are inseparable from intellectual property rights. The support of the company can also show the importance of intellectual property rights to biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies. This event invites four industry experts to focus on China's reform measures related to intellectual property rights and new trends in patent litigation, discuss with companies and universities, and make arrangements in advance. Dr. Qingchen Hou, general manager of Nanjing Huaxun Intellectual Property Consulting Co., Ltd., introduced the "Guidelines for Building a Powerful Country with Intellectual Property Rights (2021-2035)" and explained his views from four aspects: background, strategic layout, overall requirements, and organizational guarantees. . Subsequently, a detailed analysis of China's patent linkage system was carried out, and compared with the same types of cases at home and abroad, questions were raised: Why should we reward the first person who successfully challenged patents? Not the first person to file a P4 application? And have a series of discussions with you. Director Jiang Haijun of the Intellectual Property Protection Legal Committee of the Nanjing Lawyers Association gave a speech on three points: the problems after the amendment of the patent law, the enforceability of the amount of compensation, and the legal conflicts related to service inventions. Regarding the patent right evaluation report, he emphasized that the patentee, interested party or accused infringer can also proactively issue a patent right evaluation report. "Patent is a work of art that combines technology and law" is a message shared by Mr. Feng Tao from Jiangsu Junbo Law Firm at this event. Mr. Feng analyzes the big data of Chinese patent litigation cases through graphs and examples. Explore. The last topic of the event was shared by Guo Huangying, Intellectual Property Manager of Nanjing Huaxun Intellectual Property Agency (General Partnership)-China's Patent Infringement Judgment Principles and New Developments. Manager Guo explained to everyone the principles of patent infringement judgment and the necessity of patent infringement search and analysis before producing and selling products. In the intellectual property industry, ECCOM has been providing high-quality and professional comprehensive intellectual property services to enterprises and universities one step at a time. It also hopes that under the leadership of the state and the government, it will contribute to the building of a strong intellectual property nation in China. Make a contribution.
2021-10-22
Types

Types of patents that are easily overlooked- Design Patent

Types of patents that are easily overlooked- Design Patent In recent years, as the public’s awareness of intellectual property has increased, people have begun to consciously use the patent law to protect their intellectual property rights. However, in the process of implementation, they often only focus on invention patent and utility model patent, and tend to ignore the protection of design patent. Recently, Midea sued Haotaitai for two models of CXW-300-D998 and CXW-300-D908 Haotaitai brand range hoods In the case of suspected infringement of its design patent (patent number: ZL201930621598.X), the Guangzhou Intellectual Property Court made a first-instance judgment after hearing that it determined that the two products of Haotaitai constituted infringement, and ordered it to immediately stop the infringement and compensate Midea, The company's economic losses and reasonable expenses totaled 360,000 yuan. In fact, appearance infringement cases have occurred from time to time before, such as: "Molly" blind box design patent case, "Siemens" switch design patent infringement dispute case received a compensation of 6 million yuan, three Casio watch design patents were infringed Received a compensation of 8.8 million yuan and so on. The reason why people ignore the protection of design patents, in the final analysis, is that they have insufficient knowledge of design patents. Today, let's take a look at what is protected by design patents and what rights protections can we apply for? Design patent definition: Article 2 of the "Patent Law", design patent, refers to a new design that is aesthetically pleasing and suitable for industrial applications based on the shape, pattern, or combination of products, and the combination of color, shape, and pattern. Protected range: The shape of the product; the pattern of the product; the shape and pattern of the product; the shape and color of the product; the pattern and color of the product; the shape, pattern and color of the product. Protection period: The term of protection for design patent rights is 15 years, calculated from the date of filing. What are the conditions for applying for a design patent? The design should be aesthetically pleasing Appearance patents should be suitable for industrial applications The design patent application should be novel The design patent application should be inventiveness What are the advantages and functions of design patents? Protect the rights and interests of enterprises in product designs and fight against infringements in market competition. To enhance brand value, the quality and quantity of patents are the embodiment of the company's innovation ability and core competitiveness. Receive consumer recognition. If a company's new product appearance is filed for a patent in a timely manner, its appearance design will enjoy the exclusive right. Nowadays, consumers often choose products with trendy and beautiful appearance when buying their products. Applying for a design patent is a necessary condition for applying for a high-tech enterprise.
2021-09-26
Colopl

Colopl Settles Patent Infringement Lawsuit with Nintendo by Paying $30 Million

Colopl Settles Patent Infringement Lawsuit with Nintendo by Paying $30 Million   This August, Nintendo and a game developer Colopl announced that they have settled for patent infringement regarding White Cat Project (Shironeko Project in Japanese), a smartphone game developed by Colopl. Although both companies did not publicly share exact details of the settlement, at least it is sure that Colopl agreed to pay 3.3 billion yen (about US$30.2 million) as the settlement fee for the proceedings, including the future license of Nintendo's patents.    How did the battle begin?  Being developed and published by a Japanese game developer, Colopl, White Cat Project is a free-to-play action role-playing game for Android and iOS systems. The mobile game was launched in July 2014 as well as got a television anime adaptation in 2020. It is incredibly popular to have more than 50 million downloads. Furthermore, the game is set to receive a Switch version titled "Shironeko New Project".    In September 2016, Nintendo noted the Colopl's game and considered that the game had infringed on several of Nintendo's technology patents. The two companies communicated with each other for over a year; however, Nintendo did not accept the explanations from Colopl, and Nintendo filed a lawsuit against Colopl at the beginning of 2018.    Nintendo claimed that Colopl infringed 6 of its patents. These patents protect touch-screen joystick functionality (patent no. JP3734820), multiplayer connectivity (patent no. JP5595991, JP6271692), confirmation screens in sleep mode (patent no. JP4010533), character attacks based on touch input locations (patent no. JP4262217), and a shadow effect placed on characters hidden behind the game geometry (patent no. JP3637031).   These patents almost cover various ways of game technology, especially the patent  JP5595991 and JP6271692. Their patent family is wide-reaching, and many divisional applications of the family are pending in Japan. They protect a communication game system and its related devices. It is not easy to detect the patent's existence and boundary since this kind of hardcore technique is so common in the gaming field and our daily lives.     The five-year patent war has been settled.  After a five-year dispute, the situation appeared to turn in Nintendo's favor as the Switch maker increased its monetary demands, which convinced Colopl to strike a deal that lets it use the disputed patents. Furthermore, a Switch version of White Cat Project remains in the works at Colopl.    With the extraordinary losses of Colopl, the legal battle between the two companies came to an end.  
2021-09-09
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